Black men and their families or single Black men made their way to Black towns. In line with patriarchal conventions of the day, they were recognized and honored as natural leaders in their communities and in their homes even as broader society denied them the practice of the franchise and access to political office.
In Greenwood, many Black men stepped up to lead. For a very long time, their activities became synonymous with the moniker, “Black Wall Street.”
Edward McCabe is a good entry point in understanding the experiences of Black men in Oklahoma.
He was a “lawyer, land speculator, town builder, and state auditor.” McCabe was the socially appointed leader of what many hoped would become the nation’s first all-black state. Although McCabe never successfully organized enough to achieve this, he helped to establish Oklahoma Colored Agricultural and Normal College – today known as Langston University. The greatest part of McCabe’s legacy was his successful promotion of all-black towns in the Territory.
In Tulsa, more specifically there was:
- O.W. Gurley was the husband of Emma Gurley and a very prominent businessman in Greenwood. Gurley is most famously known as one of the founders of Greenwood due to his wealth of land, store, hotel, and housing addition. He was also active in community politics.
- A.J. Smitherman was the founder and active writer in the Tulsa Star that played a dynamic role in voicing the life of Greenwood. Smitherman was far from bipartisan with a strong democratic leaning which is evident in the newspaper. After the Massacre, he fled to Buffalo, New York and never returned.
- Robert Bridgewater was one of Tulsa’s Black physicians and an accomplished and respected community member. During the Massacre, Bridgewater was shot at and his home looted during the Massacre. The White looter thereof was the first White person taken to court for looting. Bridgewater’s experience and testimony of the Massacre is helpful to this day.
- J.B. Stradford was quite the businessman, owning and operating a real estate office, pool hall, and Greenwood’s second all black hotel. Stradford was accused of instigating riots during the time of the Massacre which led to his flee.
- Barney Cleaver was a deputy sheriff in Tulsa County in the early twentieth century and most notably at the time of the Massacre. The event left Cleaver with very little of his earnings and wealth. Additionally, he served as a broker and invested in real estate in the area.
- B.C. Franklin was a lawyer whose later autobiography and manuscripts provided helpful insight into the Massacre. Franklin played an active role in the fight against fire codes in Greenwood. He is the father of John Hope Franklin, who kept his father’s memory and spirit alive in Tulsa. His daughter, Mozella, taught in Tulsa Public Schools for forty plus years and Franklin’s grandchildren have only continued his legacy as attorneys.
- H.D. Evans, who owned multiple businesses in the heart of Greenwood and was a respected, prominent member of his community. Evans was married to Irene Evans.
- Pressley [Preston] Little was another business owner in Greenwood who ran the Bell and Little Café with his sister, Susie Bell.
- Captain T.D. Jackson was a barber who also ran a trade school which focused on imparting barbering skills.
- John Williams was married to Loula T. Williams and among the first group to inhabit Greenwood. John ran his own car repair shop and later helped Loula with the theater and rooming house.
Their activities show that while White society was intent on denying Black men the privileges and protections of American citizenship, the Black community allowed these men to assert themselves.
While some men stepped up to lead or develop Greenwood, others contributed to the community through daily labors for their families. Like the women of Greenwood, most men made their living by working for wages. Some worked as railroad workers, others as shoeshines, porters, cooks, plumbers, bricklayers and so on.
Despite their daily circumstances, most Greenwood men maintained confidence that the future held better opportunities.
Trader Johnston and Makayla Swanson
Bibliography
Jimmie L. Franklin, “African Americans,” The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AF003
Randy Krehbiel, Tulsa 1921: Reporting a Massacre (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019).
Larry O’Dell, “All-Black Towns,” The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AL009
Jere Roberson, “McCabe, Edward P.,” The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=MC006.
Citation:
The following (as per The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition) is the preferred citation for this article: Trader Johnston and Makayla Swanson, “Manhood in Greenwood,” in Women of Black Wall Street, 2021, Brandy Thomas Wells, Ed. https://blackwallstreetwomen.com/background-essays/
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